RESEARCH
PAPER INFORMATION GUIDE
TABLE
OF CONTENTS:
IV. BIBLIOGRAPHY
AND TEXT DOCUMENTATION
VII.
GUIDELINES FOR FINDING AND DEVELOPING A THESIS
VIII.GUIDELINES
FOR FIXING WEAK THESIS STATEMENTS
IX.
GUIDELINES FOR INTRODUCTIONS AND CONCLUSIONS
X.
GUIDELINES FOR ANALYZING EVIDENCE
XI.
GUIDELINES FOR USING SOURCES
A.
Browse print materials such as magazine articles and newspaper articles. Surf
web sites. Get ideas for a topic that fits into the guidelines set by your
teacher.
B.
Do some freewriting on topics that interest you.
C.
When you come across a topic that you feel strongly about, narrow it down to one
that can be handled in the length of the paper that your teacher
assigned.
D.
Compose a tentative thesis that contains an arguable point and is focused on one
specific aspect of your topic.
E.
Do some pre-writing (clustering, 8 specifics, outlining,
etc.)
F.
Freewrite a position essay. Try to stay away from print materials and the web
for now. In order to avoid plagiarism, you must try to set things up based on
your own, original thoughts. If you have trouble coming up with things to say,
look to define, classify, exemplify, compare, contrast, show effects, describe,
and/or narrate a story on your topic. Push yourself to get everything out that
you possibly can before you start to research.
G.
Revise and edit your freewriting. Try to set it up in a sensible format.
Remember to think of the needs of your audience.
H.
When you’re satisfied with your tentative position paper set up, start to gather
the books, magazines, news articles, web materials, etc. that you need to back
up your opinions.
I.
Take notes on pertinent materials, ones that support your arguments. Get several
sources to support each major point (See the notes section
below.).
1. Computer Notes: If you know where the notes fit into your freewrite
materials, scroll to the proper position in the freewrite text and add them. (Do
not forget to document where needed and to write down the materials that you
will need for your bibliography. (See documentation and bibliography
below.)
2. If you do not see where the notes could fit into your freewrite text at
the present time but still think that the material may be useful later, scroll
down below your freewrite text, and just attach the information below for now.
Use a specific topic label. Again, do not forget to
document.
3. Note Cards: Although it may seem old-fashioned, taking notes on cards
is still the best bet. The reason is that the cards can be manipulated. If you
take notes on cards that have specific topics at their head that correspond to
the topics in your paper, the cards can easily be spread out for easy viewing.
They can then be arranged in order to match your paper and transferred into your
paper easily. Scrolling through notes taken on a computer can be awkward as you
cannot have access to all of them at once.
J.
As you build your research paper, think about how your materials are organized
and how they connect. Prove what you say several ways before moving on to the
next point. Never assume that the reader agrees and do not tell the reader what
to believe. Develop sections of your argument with detail and documentation. Use
the basic expository formats (definition, classification, exemplification,
compare/contrast, cause/effect, process, description, narration) to build
individual sections if you are having trouble developing your argument from your
main points.
K.
After writing and revising your sections, decide on the best order and move the
sections to the position that make the most sense logically. Then work on
creating transition sentences and paragraphs. Finally, strengthen the
introduction and conclusion. Start with an attention-catcher. End by culminating
with something insightful that the reader will take with him/her after leaving
the paper.
L.
Edit and run the paper through the spellchecker.
M.
Write the bibliography (See below.).
N.
IMPORTANT: MAKE SURE THAT YOUR PAPER BEGINS WITH YOUR OWN ORIGINAL
IDEAS. ALSO, AS THE PAPER’S AUTHOR, YOU MUST INTERPRET THE MATERIALS THAT
YOU READ, TRANSLATE THEM FOR YOUR AUDIENCE AND INCORPORATE THEM INTO YOUR OWN
ORGANIZATIONAL PLAN. THE PAPER MUST NOT BE JUST A COLLECTION OF QUOTATIONS AND
SUMMARIZED MATERIALS. YOUR FINAL PAPER MUST BE MOSTLY AN ORIGINAL DOCUMENT WITH
OUTSIDE SOURCES CITED TO BACK-UP YOUR IDEAS. IT CANNOT BE MOSTLY A
COLLECTION OF OUTSIDE SOURCES WITH A BIT OF YOUR IDEAS THROWN
IN.
II. NOTETAKING
Before
taking notes on any source, do a complete scan of the material to familiarize
yourself with what it says. If the material is difficult to understand, read
through it slowly. Look up unknown vocabulary as needed. Remember that it is
your job to make difficult materials easier for the reader. In any case, do
not start taking notes until you thoroughly understand the material.
Usually, as you read more of your subject, the material gets easier to
interpret as you start to know more about it. Start with the simplest, most
basic materials and save the tough ones for when you’re more
knowledgeable.
THREE TYPES OF NOTES AND THEIR FUNCTIONS
A.
The Direct Quote contains the exact words, emphasis, and punctuation of
the writer or speaker whose information is being recorded. Quotes should be used
sparingly because they interfere with the natural flow of your own style. Use
them only when the thought or meaning of the source would suffer unless recorded
exactly or when the source’s manner of expression is particularly
noteworthy. Document
all quotes.
Example:
“Ask not what your country can do for you. Ask what you can do for your country”
(Kennedy 36).
B.
The Paraphrase is written when the purpose is to rephrase the information
by replacing more familiar terminology for that contained in the source
material. A paraphrase is approximately the same length as the original. Most of
your notetaking is usually of the paraphrase type. Use it to clarify and to make
cited text parallel to your own text. Paraphrasing must be documented after each
sentence as there is no paraphrase mark that is similar to a quotation
mark.
Example:
Original
text from source: “Slang is of general dispersion though it stands outside the
accepted canon.”
Paraphrase
of above text: Slang is widespread but is not widely accepted (Meinken
42).
Notice
how the original text is difficult to decipher. The paraphrased text fits much
better with the text of the rest of the paper.
C.
The Summary note is taken when it is necessary or valuable to reduce the
information contained in a source to its barebones, basic points. Summaries of
unopinionated material that can be found in more than one source do not need
documentation.
Example:
Original
source from text: John Smith bartered with the Native Americans on several
occasions in 1648. He exchanged jewelry for tobacco and seeds. He also bargained
with the white settlers.
Summary
note: John Smith bartered with the Native Americans and with the white
settlers.
Plagiarism
is the failure to document or misrepresentation of documentation. The reader
must be aware of what materials are researched materials and where all
researched materials came from at all times while the paper is being read. If a
sentence is not followed by documentation, the reader assumes that the material
in the sentence was created by the paper’s author or that it is legitimately
summarized factual material. If the material is a quote, it must be surrounded
by quotation marks and followed by documentation. Long quotes can be indented
and documented. If the material is a paraphrase, each sentence of it must be
followed by documentation.
WHAT
MUST BE DOCUMENTED:
1.
SPECIFIC OPINIONS OF OTHERS
2.
SPECIFIC VOCABULARY OF OTHERS
3.
SPECIFIC SYNTAX OF OTHERS
4.
LISTS COMPILED BY OTHERS
5.
STATISTICS
WHAT
DOES NOT NEED DOCUMENTATION:
1.
YOUR OWN ORIGINAL OPINIONS
2.
GENERALLY HELD OPINIONS
3.
YOUR OWN VOCABULARY
4.
YOUR OWN SYNTAX
5.
YOUR OWN LISTS
More
than half of the sentences in a typical research paper are documented as
paraphrase or quote. The quality of the paper is not based on how much or how
few documented areas exist but on how accurate the documentation is. When in
doubt – document!
IV. BIBLIOGRAPHY AND TEXT DOCUMENTATION
This
guide summarizes the MLA guidelines for writing research papers and
citations. It is based on the MLA Handbook for Writers of Research
Papers, 6th ed. For more information and examples of citations,
consult the MLA Handbook.
WORKS CITED
Place
the list of works cited at the end of the paper. Center the title, Works
Cited, an inch from the top of the page. Double-space between the title
and the first entry. Begin each entry flush with the left margin.
Indent subsequent lines one-half inch (five spaces). Double space both
within and between entries.
Alphabetize
by the author's last name. If the author is unknown, alphabetize by the
title.
Examples:
A Book
by a Single Author
Dodge,
L. Mara. Thieves of the Worst Kind: A Study of Women,
Crime,
and Prisons,
1835-2000. DeKalb:
A Book
by Two or More Authors:
If the book has two or three
authors, all authors are mentioned in the citation. However, if the book
was written by more than three authors, only the first author is mentioned,
followed by et. al.
Block,
Holly, et al. Art
Salzman,
Jack, David Lionel Smith, and Cornel West, eds. Encyclopedia of
African-American Culture and
History. 5 vols.
A Work (essay, short story, poem, article) in an Anthology (or collection):
Rodriguez
de Tio, Lola. "Ode to October 10." The Anthology of Hispanic
Literature of the
Nicolas Kanellos.
An Article in a Reference Book:
Signed (has an author):
Goodwin, Noel. "Shostakovich, Dmitry."
The New Grove Dictionary of Music and
Musicians. 2nd ed. 2001.
Unsigned (no
author):
"Northern Right Whale." Beacham's Guide to the
Endangered Species of
et al. 6
vols.
An
Article in a Scholarly Journal
... with Continuous Pagination:
Danner,
Bruce. "Speaking Daggers." Shakespeare Quarterly 54 (2003):
29-62.
...that Pages Each Issue Separately:
(In
this instance, issue numbers must be included in the citation. The issue
number is placed after the volume number and is preceded by a
period.
Carter,
Nancy Carol. "The Special Case of
Legal Quarterly 22.4:
11-46.
An Article in a Magazine:
(Magazines
are published more frequently than scholarly journals. Instead of
identifying the magazine using the volume and issue number, you need only cite
the magazine's date of publication.
Goodell,
Jeff. "The Plunder of
An Article in a Newspaper:
Gladstone,
Valerie. "Shiva Meets Martha Graham, at a Very High Speed." New
YorkTimes
10 Aug. 2003,
Graham,
George. "
22
July 2003, Metro West ed.: B1.
Web
Pages Basic Form:
Author
of webpage/document (if available). "Title of Webpage or Document."
"Title of Website. Editor of site
(if available). Publication date or date updated (if available).
Sponsoring Organization (if available).
Date of access <URL>
Author: Usually
found at the top or bottom of the web page. If a name is not available, begin
your citation with the document or web page
title.
Title of Web
Page/Document: May be found at top left corner of printout, or at the top of
the Web browser.
Title of Website:
Often listed as a homepage, the site for which the document was
created.
Update/Publication
date: Usually found at the end of the document. Give the full date (day,
month, and year)
Sponsoring
Organization: If the web page is produced by an organization, a school, a
company, etc., provide that information
here.
URL: The
Uniform Resource Locator is the Web address of your document. It is
found at the top right corner of your printout or in the location bar on your
Web browser.
Example:
Turco,
Richard P. "Greenhouse Gas Emissions." UCLA Institute of the
Environment
UCLA. January 10, 2004
http://www.ioe.ucla.edu/publications/report01/GreenhouseGas.htm
Government
Publications
Spending: Hearings. 90th Cong., 1st
sess. 2 vols.
Edmonson,
Bradley. “AIDS and Aging.” American Demographics Mar. 1990: 28+
The Aids Crisis. Ed. Eleanor Goldstein. Vol. 2.
Boca Raton: Infotrac, 2001.
Interview:
Pie, I.
M. Personal interview. 22 July 1993.
TV Show
:
“Yes…but
is It Art?” Narr. Morley Safer. Sixty Minutes. CBS WTIC, Hartford, 19
Sept.
1997.
DOCUMENTATION
IN TEXT
You
must cite your use of "another's words, facts, or ideas.” "References in
the text must clearly point to specific sources in the list of works
cited." Identify sources by author's last name, and include page
numbers. Online sources may not have fixed page numbers to cite. If "you
include an author's name in a sentence, you need not repeat the name in the
parenthetical page citation that
follows..."
Citing
Part of a Work
Dodge's
analysis of occupations reveals that "virtually all female convicts were poor
or working-class" (114).
In this
novel, Atwood draws on French feminist theory (Freibert
16).
...in
his painting of Fidel Castro greeting the Pope (Block, et al.
140).
Citing
Volume and Page Numbers of a Multivolume Work:
"In
the year 1824, some 13,000 black Americans emigrated to
Citing
a Work Listed by Title:
...a
rule requiring avoidance measures within 500 yards of the whales ("Northern
Right Whale" 105).
Citing
Two or More Works by the Same Author or Authors:
...in
an article about W.P.A. writers (Brinkley, "Unmasking"
A15).
"From
1897 to 1917, Storyville...became the world's most famous red-light
district" (Brinkley, American Heritage
382).
Individual teachers
and institutions or departments may vary from these recommendatons somewhat and
it is always wise to consult with your teacher before formatting and submitting
your work.
Use
white, 8 1/2- by 11-inch paper.
Except
for page numbers (see below), leave one-inch margins all around the text of your
paper -- left side, right side, and top and bottom. Paragraphs should be
indented half an inch; set-off quotations should be indented an inch from the
left margin (five spaces and ten spaces, respectively, on standard
computers).
The
MLA Guide says that "the research paper must be double-spaced," including
quotations, notes, and the list of works cited.
Your
research paper does not need a title page. At the top of the first page, at the
left-hand margin, type your name, your instructor's name, the course name and
number, and the date -- all on separate, double-spaced lines. Then double-space
again and center the title above your text. (If your title requires more than
one line, double-space between the lines.) Double-space again before beginning
your text. The title should be neither underlined nor written in all capital
letters. Capitalize only the first, last, and principal words of the title.
Titles might end with a question mark or an exclamation mark if that is
appropriate, but not in a period. Titles written in other languages are
capitalized and punctuated according to different rules, and writers should
consult the MLA Guide or their teachers.
Example of beginning of a first page:
Aflack 1
Mary Ann Aflack
Mr. Calabrese
Interpreting English 12
14 October 2005
The Dust
Specks
Number
your pages consecutively throughout the manuscript (including the first page) in
the upper right-hand corner of each page, one-half inch from the top. Type your
last name before the page number. Most word processing programs provide for a
"running head," which you can set up as you create the format for the paper, at
the same time you are establishing things like the one-inch margins and the
double-spacing. This feature makes the appearance and consistency of the page
numbering a great convenience. Make sure the page-number is always an inch from
the right-hand edge of the paper (flush with the right-hand margin of your text)
and that there is a double-space between the page number and the top line of
text. Do not use the abbreviation p. or any other mark before the page
number.
Tables
should be labeled "Table," given an arabic numeral, and captioned (with those
words flush to the left-hand margin). Other material such as photographs,
images, charts, and line-drawings should be labeled "Figure" and be properly
numbered and captioned.
Generally,
the simpler the better. Teachers prefer nice, flat stacks of papers they can
stuff into their briefcases and backpacks? A simple staple in the upper
left-hand corner of your paper should suffice. Your teachers or their
departments may have their own rules about binders, and you should consult with
them about this matter.
The
above MLA materials are from the following source:
Gibaldi,
Joseph. MLA Handbook for Writers of Research Papers. 6th
ed.
Modern
Language Association, 2003.
VI. SAMPLE
TEXT WITH DOCUMENTATION:
Notice
how the paper below combines significant points and literary analysis with text
citing and research. The key is to integrate all of the pieces and provide the
reader with a seamless package.
The Dust Specks
“Who
am I? I asked myself. But it was like trying to identify one particular cell
that coursed through the torpid veins of my body. Maybe I was just this
blackness and bewilderment and pain” (Ellison 32). So says Ellison’s protagonist
in Invisible
The strongest need of
mankind after physical needs are met is to love and be loved (Myers 85). We have
an innate dread of being alone, which drives us to seek the companionship of
others; we fear being seen as a distinct person for it exposes us to the
criticism of others, makes us vulnerable. In Beckett’s Waiting for Godot,
Estragon cries to
A thesis is an idea
that you formulate and reformulate about your subject. It should offer a
theory about the meaning of evidence that would not have been immediately
obvious to your readers.
Look for a thesis
by focusing on an area of your subject that is open to opposing viewpoints or
multiple interpretations. Rather than attempting to locate a single right
answer, search for something that raises
questions.
The body of your
paper should serve not only to substantiate the thesis by demonstrating its
value in selecting and explaining evidence but also to bring the opening
version of the thesis into better focus.
Evolve your
thesis-move it forward-by seeing the questions that each new formulation of it
prompts you to ask.
Develop the
implications of your evidence and of your observations as fully as you can by
repeatedly asking, "Why do I care?"
When you encounter
potentially conflicting evidence (or interpretations of that evidence), don't
simply abandon your thesis. Take advantage of the complications to expand,
qualify, and refine your thesis until you arrive at the most accurate
explanation of the evidence that you can
manage.
Reason forward
(scaffold) to conclusions by reasoning backward to
premises.
Arrive at the final
version of your thesis by returning to your initial formulation- the position
you set out to explore-and restating it in the more carefully qualified way
you have arrived at through the body of your
paper.
To check that your
thesis has evolved, locate and compare the various versions of it throughout
the draft. Have you done more than demonstrate the general validity of an
unqualified claim?
Be skeptical of
your first (often semiautomatic) response to a subject. It will often be a
cliché or too broad. Avoid conventional wisdom unless you can qualify it or
introduce a fresh perspective on it.
Convert broad
categories and generic (fits anything) claims to more specific assertions.
Find ways to bring out the complexity of your
subject.
Submit the wording
of your thesis to this grammatical test: if it follows the "abstract noun + is
+ evaluative adjective" formula ("The economic situation is bad"), substitute
a more specific noun and an active verb that will force you to predicate
something about a focused subject ("Tax laws benefit the
rich").
Treat your thesis
as a hypothesis to be tested rather than an obvious truth. Examine and
question your own terms and categories rather than simply accepting
them.
Always work to
uncover and make explicit the unstated assumptions (premises) underlying your
thesis. Don't treat debatable premises as
givens.
As a rule, be
suspicious of thesis statements that depend on words such as “real”,
“accurate”, “believable”, “right”, and “good”. These words frequently signal
that you are offering personal opinions-what "feels" right to you as
self-evident truths for everybody.
Introductions
Engage your readers
by expressing why, in terms of existing thinking on the subject, your topic
matters. Avoid "catchy" introductory gimmicks in academic
writing.
Always introduce a
working hypothesis, frame it with background or other context, and indicate
your method or angle of approach. Cite
relevant sources.
Don't try to do too
much. Offer only the most relevant context, the most essential parts of your
road map, and a first rather than last
claim.
Experiment with
different opening types. Challenge a common view, use your second best example
to set up the issue, or exemplify the problem with a narrative
opening.
Don't just
summarize; culminate. Offer your most qualified statement of the thesis or
your final judgment on the question posed in the
introduction.
Come full circle.
Revisit the introductory hypothesis and context. This strategy will unify your
paper.
Accept the
limitations of your discussion or study. Don't assert more than your evidence
has established.
Give your
conclusion a send-off. Leave the reader with implications or speculations to
think about further. Avoid closing the conclusion with a
concession.
Let your conclusion
gradually escort the reader out of the paper. Like the introduction, it is a
social site, so leave the reader with a positive last
impression.
Support your
assertions with evidence. Locate the details that have led you to your
conclusions.
Interpret the
evidence for your readers, rather than leaving examples to speak for
themselves. Make details speak.
Make explicit what
is implicit in both your evidence and your
claims.
State the
connection between the evidence and the claims, rather than just putting the
evidence next to the claims. Explain how each example supports, refines, or
extends the point you are making.
Allow your evidence
to shape your claim, rather than trying to force the evidence to fit a
preconceived and overly broad
generalization.
Give yourself the
chance to discover a workable idea by narrowing your focus. Say more about
less rather than less about more, allowing a carefully analyzed part of your
subject to provide perspective on the
whole.
It is generally
better to make ten points on a representative issue or example than to make
the same basic point about ten related issues or
examples.
When writing about
a number of examples, explore the significant differences among them, rather
than just pointing to a general
similarity.
Use your best
example as a lens through which to examine other evidence. Your analysis of
subsequent examples should test and develop the conclusions derived from your
best example, rather than just confirming that you are
right.
Argue overtly that
the examples on which you focus are representative. Be careful not to
generalize on the basis of too little or unrepresentative
evidence.
To test the
representativeness of your evidence and qualify your claims, seek out and
address the single piece of evidence that most effectively opposes your point
of view.
Avoid the
temptation to plug in sources as "answers." Aim for a conversation with them.
Think of sources as voices inviting you into a community of interpretation,
discussion, and debate.
Quote, paraphrase,
or summarize in order to analyze. Explain what you take the source to mean,
showing the reasoning that has led to the conclusion you draw from
it.
Quote, rather than
summarize or paraphrase, when the actual language is important to your point.
Then analyze the important terms directly, bringing out their
implications.
Quote sparingly.
You are usually better off centering your analysis on a few quotations and
branching out to aspects of your subject that the quotations
illuminate.
Put your source in
a context that will give your readers perspective on its concerns. Which of
its points does the source find most important? What positions does it want to
modify or refute, and why?
Attribute sources
("According to Einstein, . . .) in the text of your paper, not just in
parenthetical citations. Such attributions (a) help your readers evaluate the
source material as they read it and (b) distinguish source material from your
remarks about it.
Look for ways to
develop, modify, or apply what a source has said, rather than simply agreeing
or disagreeing with it. Ask yourself, "If we accept this position as true,
then what follows?"
If you challenge a
position found in a source, be sure to represent it fairly. First give the
source some credit by identifying assumptions you share with it. Then isolate
the part that you intend to complicate or
dispute.
Look for sources
that address your subject from different perspectives. Avoid relying too
heavily on any one source.
When your sources
disagree, consider playing mediator. Instead of immediately agreeing with one
or the other, clarify areas of agreement and disagreement among
them.
Sections VII-XI above from:
* Rosenwasser, David. Writing Analytically. Philadelphia: Harcourt Brace College
Publishers, 1997.